Applying Theory for Human Betterment
At the height of behaviorism, I began my career. At that time, people believed that behavior was determined and modified by the results of reflexes. Psychodynamic theories dominated the clinical field and popular culture. It was in this context that I developed social cognitive theory, which is rooted in an agentic perspective (Bandura, 2008). In this agentic approach, individuals are able (and guided) to take steps to improve their lives (Bandura, 1977). This theory has been widely applied in various fields of interdisciplinary activities. However, due to space limitations, this review will primarily focus on addressing some of the most challenging global issues of large-scale application.
Paradigm Shift in Causality and Change Models
In the early 1960s, increasing evidence indicated that psychodynamic theories lacked predictive and therapeutic efficacy. Even if psychodynamic approaches were very effective, they had little social utility. Improving people’s lives through lengthy analyses of unconscious complexes only made a minimal contribution to the enormous demand for social psychotherapy. Some changes require improvements to those adverse social institutions that lead to psychosocial problems.
The 1960s ushered in a complete transformation of causal models and paradigms of personal and social change (Bandura, 2004). Within a decade, new conceptual models and analytical methods were created. New journals were established, and new professional organizations were formed to advance specific research methods. New professional conferences provided a forum for the exchange of ideas. The emerging therapeutic model—cognitive-behavioral therapy—focused on changing deeply rooted erroneous thoughts and behaviors. Although these new therapeutic approaches gained widespread acceptance professionally due to their demonstrated effectiveness, they stirred a storm in society.
During this transformation, Skinner (1971) published his controversial book “Beyond Freedom and Dignity.” It topped the New York Times bestseller list and was widely promoted on national book tours. Skinner described the rights to freedom and dignity as mere byproducts of environmental influences. He characterized social change as a form of “cultural engineering.” This perspective shocked the public, who feared that adopting these new psychological methods would strip people of their dignity and freedom.
The mass media was filled with repugnant images of brainwashing and the terrifying scenes from Orwell’s “1984” and Huxley’s “Brave New World,” all dominated by social engineers wielding powerful behavioral control methods. The blockbuster film “A Clockwork Orange” (Kubrick, 1971) vividly depicted the evil nature of behavior modifiers compelling criminals to submit. Woody Allen (1973) humorously transcended the iron-fisted control of authoritarian social engineers in his film “Sleeper,” where they turned humans into mindless zombies.
Jim McConnell from the University of Michigan became the first victim of this cultural bombardment, prompting a lengthy diatribe against behavior modification. Lyndon LaRouche, who became a “long-term candidate” for the U.S. presidency, labeled practitioners of behavioral methods as “Rockefeller Nazis” and attempted to put some prominent figures on trial in his anti-human crime court, even storming into classrooms at Stony Brook University.
During this media frenzy, I began my term as president of the American Psychological Association. A responsible social science must not only promote the advancement of knowledge but also address the social implications of its applications. Based on this dual commitment, we established an interdisciplinary working group to examine the use of psychological methods at both individual and institutional levels. The extensive analysis of the special task force was published in “Ethical Issues in Behavior Modification” (Stolz, 1978), providing a thoughtful evaluation of existing applications and establishing a set of standards for ethical practice, dispelling the public’s terrifying misconceptions propagated by the media.
Our knowledge accumulated over time in the application of personal and social change earned public recognition, with cognitive-behavioral therapy regarded as the preferred method for addressing various psychosocial issues.
Development of Guided-Mastery Treatment
World-renowned psychologist and Stanford professor Albert Bandura helped people overcome their lifelong fear of snakes in a series of early studies by guiding them to engage in a series of interactions with snakes, with increasing intensity at each stage.
First, they observed snakes through a one-way mirror; once they passed this stage, they moved to the next—observing snakes from the other side of an open door; next, they watched others touch snakes; then they tried touching snakes themselves while wearing leather gloves; finally, after several hours, the last stage was to touch snakes without gloves. Bandura referred to this gradual process of experiencing small steps as “Guided-Mastery“.
Those who underwent this training not only overcame what was once considered an insurmountable fear, but they also became less anxious when facing challenges in other aspects of life and were more willing to try new and frightening activities, such as horseback riding or public speaking. They became more motivated to try new things, more persistent, and better at adjusting in the face of setbacks. They also gained newfound confidence in the goals they aspired to achieve.
During this time, I was developing a guided treatment method for patients with severe snake phobia who were living extremely debilitated lives. Some of them encountered difficulties in their professional activities or felt immense distress. Geologists, biologists, telephone repairmen, and firefighters had to work in areas where they feared snakes lurked. This included Peace Corps volunteers and teachers vacationing in snake-infested countries. Nearly all of them had given up on recreational activities like hiking, camping, and gardening. Golf was an expensive sport for them because they feared searching for golf balls in rough terrain.In the spirit of the West, one phobia patient shot himself in the leg while trying to kill a harmless snake.People believed that a more common painful consequence of snake phobia was: “In spring and summer, when I am outdoors, this idea constantly lingers in my mind.”
When phobic individuals desperately avoid what they fear, they lose contact with the reality they are avoiding. Through uncertain testing of fear beliefs, guided mastery provides a quick and effective method for restoring reality testing. But more importantly, guided mastery therapy enables phobic patients to eliminate their persistent fear behaviors (Bandura, 1997; Bandura, Blanchard & Ritter, 1969). In guided mastery therapy, therapists develop coping strategies to manage increasing fear threats. Phobic patients face their avengers through various auxiliary means and master these means. This collaborative process is repeated until they overcome their phobia. To avoid misattribution of coping effectiveness to the therapist, newly arrived former phobic patients manage their fear threats entirely on their own.
This is a particularly powerful treatment. In just a few sessions, it eliminated persistent phobias in all cases, reducing general anxiety and biological stress responses. This method is equally effective for treating the most severe anxiety disorders, such as agoraphobia (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, & Howells, 1980; Williams, 1990).
The most surprising finding in snake phobia treatment was the transformation of dream activity. Treated phobic patients no longer experienced distressing ruminations. At the beginning of the treatment, snakes in dreams frightened the patients: “Before treatment, I dreamed of terrifying snakes getting bigger and bigger. Now my fear is gone. Since the treatment, I have had no scary thoughts.” As participants began to gain coping abilities, the snakes became gentler: “I had a dream where a large python became my friend, even helping me wash dishes.” This marked a significant improvement from the dreams where they were often frightened by snakes; their dreams focused on their achievements rather than the characteristics and behaviors of snakes: “I dreamed about what I did that day—petting and hugging it.” Finally, the dreams ceased: “I no longer dream about snakes. I have no dreams related to snakes anymore.”
In follow-up assessments, participants remained free of snake phobia. However, they explained that this treatment had a more profound impact and transformation on their lives. Through brief guided mastery, they eliminated lifelong fears and tormenting nightmares, instilling a resilient sense of efficacy that enabled them to better take control of their lives. They took pleasure in their successes and engaged in activities they previously avoided. Empirical evidence confirms that self-efficacy is a common mechanism through which different therapeutic approaches influence behavioral change (Bandura, 1997).
Functional Attributes of Seeking Self-Efficacy
I initiated a multifaceted research program to elucidate the nature of this agentic self-belief system. People are not omnipotent in any situation. The self-efficacy belief system comprises a set of different self-beliefs associated with functional domains rather than a one-size-fits-all trait. To ensure that self-efficacy measurements reflect structure, I wrote a manual for constructing appropriate self-efficacy scales (Bandura, 2006b). Research findings from various fields detail how resilient beliefs can be developed within a person’s efficacy and explain the cognitive, motivational, emotional, and decision-making mechanisms through which self-efficacy beliefs produce effects.
This theory quickly spread across different fields of psychology and interdisciplinary domains. In the book “Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control” (Bandura, 1997), I documented the extensive applications of this theory in education, health, clinical disorders, sports, business, and social and political change. Other scholars from different disciplines have published review books that provide rich overviews of the applications of self-efficacy theory in significant life domains (Feltz, Short, & Sullivan, 2008; Maddux, 1995; Pajares & Urdan, 2006; Schwarzer, 1992).
Social Cognitive Theory Benefits the World
Some of the most ambitious large-scale applications of social cognitive theory address the growing global environmental threats to sustainable development (Bandura, 2006a, 2009). Achieving societal transformation requires three actionable components. The first component is the theoretical model. It specifically outlines the determinants of psychosocial change and the mechanisms through which these determinants exert influence. The second component is the transformation and implementation model. It translates theoretical principles into innovative operational models. It specifies the content, strategies, and methods of implementation for change. We often fail to benefit from theoretical successes because we lack effective means to disseminate viable psychosocial methods.
This large-scale change model originated from a story. One morning, I received a call from Miguel Sabido, a brilliant producer and playwright from Mexican television. He explained that he had extracted some demonstration principles from our social modeling research and used this knowledge to create a long-running soap opera that was effecting considerable social change (Bandura, 2006a). We had a reliable theory and an innovative change model, but we lacked the knowledge and resources to disseminate global social change programs.
The third component is the social diffusion model, designed to adapt effective psychosocial programs to different cultural contexts. The Population Media Center, directed by David Poindexter (2004), is a global dissemination system. This media center collaborates with host countries to develop culturally relevant programming.
These dramas are not fanciful stories. The plots depict the realities and obstacles of people’s daily struggles. These narratives help people envision a better life and inform, assist, and guide them to take steps toward realizing their hopes and dreams. Hundreds of episodes spanning years create a strong emotional bond between audiences and role models, with role models’ thoughts and behaviors developing at a credible pace. As one viewer put it, “This is our story.” Viewers commented that they identified with the role models in the storylines who struggled to improve their lives: “I see myself in François’s character.” Audiences are inspired to improve their own lives. Multiple intersecting storylines and subplots address different aspects of people’s lives rather than focusing solely on one.
This flexible format contributes to its universality, versatility, and power (Bandura, 2006a).
For example, in the stories broadcast in Sudan, the plots include the benefits of family planning, opportunities for girls’ education, the injustices of forced marriage, the risks of early childbearing, the prevention of HIV infection, and the dangers of involvement in drug-related activities. A particularly prominent theme in Sudan addresses the devastating consequences of female genital mutilation. Approximately 130 million women in Africa have suffered this brutal ritual. In this script, a beloved young girl’s body and mind suffer devastating harm and trauma. Characters representing Muslim clergy oppose this practice. This soap opera shifts social norms towards the abolition of this cruel practice.
The soap operas are not social programs imposed by outsiders. Instead, they are created in response to invitations from countries seeking help to address tricky issues. The media center collaborates with local media personnel to produce soap operas that resonate with their cultural context and address the types of interests they pursue.
Comparative modeling is used to provide various guidance and motivation for change. The storylines include positive models of good living, negative models of harmful lifestyles, and transitional models that shift from harmful behaviors to beneficial ones. Modeled practices provide knowledge, skills, and strategies that influence change. The models embody aspirations for a better future and realistic pathways to achieve it. Observers, seeing similar transitional models succeed through perseverance, come to believe that their actions can effectively improve their lives. Unless people perceive this modeled lifestyle as an improvement to their welfare, they have little motivation to adopt it. The benefits of beneficial practices and the costs of harmful practices are vividly depicted through comparative modeling, providing impetus for change.
If people lack the resources and environmental support to achieve change, the value of motivating them to change is limited. As shown in Figure 1, our social change model operates through two pathways. In the direct pathway, media influence promotes change by informing, enabling, motivating, and guiding audiences to improve their lives. In the social mediation pathway, media influence connects people with social networks and community environments. During the summation process, relevant community service and support groups are provided with contact information. These places offer ongoing personalized guidance, natural incentives, and social support for individual and social change.
Figure 1Pathways through which communication influences social psychological change. They do so directly and indirectly through a social mediation pathway that connects audiences with social networks and communities.
This model is highly applicable across different cultures because the dramas can be adapted to people’s desires based on cultural customs. These products benefit millions globally (Bandura, 2006a, 2009). For instance, they have improved literacy rates in Africa, Asia, and Latin America; elevated the status of women in societies where they are marginalized and deprived of freedom and dignity; reduced unintended pregnancies to break the cycle of poverty and curb population growth; curtailed the spread of AIDS; mobilized communities to clean contaminated water sources, a leading cause of death and disease worldwide; and promoted environmental protection practices such as sustainable forestry and agriculture, land conservation, natural resource protection, and wildlife habitat preservation to safeguard biodiversity.
These global applications demonstrate that a comprehensive psychosocial functional theory can bring about profound changes. The inclination of social cognitive theory differs from our focus on the field of psychopathology; social cognitive theory is committed to developing and delivering the best for individuals and social systems.
Bandura, A. (2019). Applying Theory for Human Betterment. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(1), 12–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618815165
Conflict of Interest Statement: The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.
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